Myanmar has experienced an increasing trend in rural out-migration in recent years. Evidence suggests that 26-30% of all households in Myanmar have migrant family members. As a result, labour scarcity in agricultural production has become one of the major issues to be addressed in order to achieve sustainable agricultural development. In Myanmar, there are limited studies on the impact of labour out-migration on agricultural production, rural labour market and changes in gender role and labour participation in agriculture. This thesis explores how the current migration patterns in rural Myanmar are impacting on farm labour supply and demand, agricultural economics, and gender roles in the Mandalay and Sagaing regions. Strategies being used to mitigate the negative impacts of migration on sustainable agricultural production are also identified and analysed. A mixed methods research approach was used. Household surveys were undertaken of 302 migrant and non-migrant sending households from 12 villages in four townships of the Mandalay and Sagaing Regions that were selected using a stratified random sampling method. Qualitative data were collected through male and female focus group discussions and 50 key informant interviews with representative migrant and non-migrant sending households, village leaders, and public officials of organisations related to the agricultural sectors.
This research found that labour out-migration rate is high in the case study areas and will likely continue to rise as long as there are economic incentives and job opportunities. Therefore, migration will continue to play a major role in national development in the future. The survey data revealed different socioeconomic profiles for the emigrant households" for example, they have a higher number of young family members than non-emigrant households. Even though domestic migration was found to be more common, international out-migration will continue to be high, as many domestic migrants have moved to the border areas waiting opportunities to cross the border as undocumented migrants. International migrants are predominantly male, but there is approximately an even gender representation for domestic migrants. The respondents also recognised that migrant-sending families have higher incomes than non-migrant families, due to remittances from the migrant family members. Generally, respondents assessed the net migration impact as positive. However, the majority also held the view that labour out-migration poses an ongoing threat to agricultural development, unless effective migration strategies can be identified and implemented.
In Myanmar, migration has become a mechanism for reducing the risk of economic disaster, and the migration rate has fluctuated in response to variations in Myanmar's economic growth. This fluctuation has also impacted on the agricultural sector's share of the labour force, which has decreased annually compared to other sectors. In the study areas, farm labour supply has decreased, especially in peak season. Migrants are predominately male, so there is a shortage of male labour in agriculture. Concurrently, the supply of female labour in agriculture is increasing, although the daily or monthly wage rates of women are less than that of men. Thus, in the study areas, labour outmigration has caused significant labour shortages in agricultural production, and has also triggered a process of feminisation in agriculture due to male-dominant emigration.
Remittances contribute significantly to the income of migrant-sending households, which is almost double that of non-migrant households. However, the study's quantitative analysis did not find significant reported differences between migrant and non-migrant sending households in agricultural production variables such as crop yield per hectare and crop income. The study found that the largest portion of the remittances goes to household expenditure, rather than on agricultural investment, and that the loss of labour has caused a reduction in sown areas.
A range of strategies has been identified by farmers for coping with migration induced labour shortages. Farmers prefer short-term labour management strategies, which include offering a higher farm labour wage rate, better facilities to attract farm workers, and searching for labour from other places. Interestingly, migrant-sending households and communities have developed reciprocal coping behaviours by forming cooperative working groups to share labour in order to solve the issue of labour scarcity during the peak season. Farm mechanisation is also suggested as one coping mechanism for saving time and reducing labour requirements" however, farmers generally believed that farm machinery is too expensive to buy and rental machines are often unavailable. Some farmers adopt coping strategies that may threaten sustainable agricultural development and food security. These strategies include leaving land fallow, reducing sown areas, shifting to crops that require less labour, and using less labour-intensive cultural practices. At the macro level, public officials are providing agricultural extension services and limited farm mechanisation development programs" however, systematic coping strategies to address the agricultural labour shortfall are still required. Continuing labour shortages will probably result in decreased agricultural productivity, and a depreciation in agricultural land values. Finally, options are discussed for government intervention and the adoption of policies for farm mechanisation and rural development programs through collaboration between the public and private sectors that can mitigate the negative impacts of outmigration and enhance the positive benefits for Myanmar agriculture.