Ecology and management of invasive plants in the sub-Antarctic and Antarctic regions: evidence and synthesis from Macquarie Island

Abstract

<b>Background:</b> The Antarctic is an extreme environment for plants. Several invasive plant species, however, have invaded the sub-Antarctic Southern Ocean islands and increasingly threaten the vulnerability of maritime and continental Antarctica, particularly with changes in climate.<br/><b>Aims:</b> We provide an overview of issues to consider with regard to the impact, ecology and management of non-native plants in the Antarctic, focusing on knowledge gained and recent research results from the sub-Antarctic with possible application to Antarctica.<br/><b>Methods:</b> We provide a brief review of literature and bring together experience and previously unpublished research with <i>Poa annua</i> and <i>Stellaria media</i> on Macquarie Island.<br/><b>Results:</b> While no one set of biological characteristics predicts plant invasiveness in the sub-Antarctic, all are adapted to survive extreme cold conditions and persistence is enabled through large and long-lived soil seed banks. Ecological drivers for invasion include accidental human introductions and continuing movement, along with animal and other disturbance to soil.<br/><b>Conclusion:</b> The invasive cold-tolerant plant species now prevalent on sub-Antarctic islands also pose a threat to Antarctica due to a warming climate and so efforts should continue to prevent further spread, while developing effective, low-impact control and eradication options to protect these high-value extreme ecosystems.