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Roth’s description of trade in Cape York and Northwestern Queensland Roth 1897: Ch IX, Sect 230 – in the Boulia district (north-western Queensland) - pearl shell bartered in (with boomerangs wommeras, painted shields, eagle-hawk feathers, grind-stones etc.)- traded from Marion Downs area up the Georgina River to Headingly, down through Toko water-hole a and back down to Glenormiston for spears, boomerangs, Government blankets and other goods - “white shell” baler (Melo sp.)shell traded in (with shields, yellow ochre, hand-spears, red handkerchiefs, shirts) - people from Springvale travelled up the Diamantina River as far as Cork, across to Tocal, and down the Thomson River to Carella and returning the same way - exchanged for boomerangs, shields, pituri, Government blankets and other goods from around Boulia 1897 Ch IX Sect. 231 – Upper Georgina District (north-western Queensland) - Pearl shell traded in (with eagle-hawk feathers, stone-knives, large koolamons, human-hair belts etc.) from the north for spears, boomerangs, whit-man’s knives, blankets, shirts, trousers, pituri, small koolamons, emu-feathers etc. 1897 Ch IX Sect 232 – Leichardt-Selwyn district (north-western Queensland) - Grass necklaces traded out (with blankets, human-hair twine, other boomerangs and spears, nulla-nullas, hook boomerangs, fighting-poles, grindstones, red ochre dilly- bags, shields) – Kalkadoon traded south around Georgina River markets traded for lunga-lunga boomerangs, stone knives, human-, opossum-, kangaroo-, and wallaby- hair (in the rough), koolamons, short wommera-spears and long gidyea ones. And down to Buckingham Downs, Chatsworth the Kalkadoons brought similar articles returning mainly with pituri, fish-nets etc. 1897 Ch IX Sect.233 – Cloncurry District (north-western Queensland) - White shell (baler) chest ornament – traded in at Fort Constantine, which has already been traded through Croyden from Normanton. 1910b, Bulletin 15, Sect 1 – Bloomfield River (Cape York, East Cape York) - Shell ornament – traded in (with stingaree spears, yellow ochre, edible pipe clay (in old days), shields and swords (in recent times). Home production for trade and barter dilly bags, spears, wommeras, edible pipe clay (within recent years) best kind of fighting stick, shields and swords (in the old days). Each person acted on their own 403 Leila McAdam Ch.3. Trade routes - McCarthy & Roth Appendix 1 behalf, no restriction with whom they could barter. Members of same tribe interchanged. 1910b, Bulletin 15, Sect 2 – Princess Charlotte Bay (Cape York, East Coast) - Baler (Melo sp.) shell and Nautilus sp. shell necklaces (with grass reed spears, stingaree spears and fishing nets) traded in from Normanby and Deighton Rivers in exchange for reed spears, iron scraps, European tomahawks, etc. 1910b Bulletin 15, Sect 3 – Cape Bedford (Cape York, East Coast) - Nautilus sp. shell, pearl shell chest ornaments and baler (Melo sp.) shells (with iron tomahawks, iron digging sticks, different kinds of dilly bags) export out for forehead bands, kangaroo tail sinew, kangaroo bones, quartz tipped spears, bark troughs and grindstone. They travelled and bartered north along the coast to probably the Mitchell River and south to Endeavour River. 1910b Bulletin 15, Sect 4 – Cape Grafton (Cape York, East Coast) - Grass bugle necklaces traded out to the Mulgrave and Russell Rivers - Beeswax necklaces, square cut Nautilus sp. shell necklaces (with cockatoo head dresses, bamboo spear, shell hafted spear throwers, hour glass woven pattern dilly bags, round base basket dilly bags) traded in from the Barron River and Port Douglas. - Large oval cut pearl shell chest ornaments with long swords, boomerangs, shields, opossum string, armlets) traded in from the south directly or indirectly from the Mulgrave River. The shell ornaments came from the Mulgrave River via Atherton and Herberton, possibly originated in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Bartering personal. 1910b Bulletin 15, Sect 5 – Tully River (Lower Cape York, East Coast) - Pearl shell chest ornaments (with unidentified objects) come in from the south. 1910b Bulletin 15 Sect 15 – Cairns, Cardwell and Tully River - Oval cut Nautilus sp. necklaces/headbands probably traded in from the Gulf of Carpentaria via the Mitchell River. 1910b Bulletin 15 Sect 30 – Cape York - Nautilus sp. shell was not traded far inland possibly because it was too fragile. - Baler (Melo sp.) shell ‘as a general rule…is to be found worn more frequently inland than on the coast. The Melo travels in the Boulia District from the Gulf coast, between the Nassau and Staaten Rivers, into Normanton, Upper Flinders and Cloncurry Districts. The Flinders River natives traded with Hughenden. At the headwaters of the Diamantina River, it is received from three sources then trade it down river to Daimantina Gates and Cork, then via Springvale into the Boulia area. 404 Leila McAdam Ch.3. Trade routes - McCarthy & Roth Appendix 1 1897: Ch IX, Sect 230 – Boulia district (north-western Queensland) - Kangaroo teeth traded out (with koolamons, shields, spears, Government blankets, pituri, grind-stones, red-ochre etc.) – groups south of Boulia travelled down the Georgina River to Lake Machattie and across to Birdsville, then returned up the Diamantina River to Monkira and back home – traded for other blankets, human-hair belts, “bilbi” tails, while plaster etc. 1910b Bulletin 15 Sect 32 – Boulia District - Eagle hawk’s claws chest ornament attached moon shape to cement. Brought in from the north both down the Georgina River and down the Burke and Wills River. 405 Leila McAdam Ch.3. Trade routes - McCarthy & Roth Appendix 1 406 Figure 1. Roth’s study area north west Queensland (Roth 1897, Plate 1) Summary of archaeological sites with beads in Australia Appendix 2 Dating – years BP Location Description Reference >32,000 to ca. 21,000 Mandu Mandu Creek rockshelter, W.A. Modified Conus sp. shell at the basal occupation level. Evidence of rubbing from string. .Scaphopod and pearl shell at higher layers and three fragments of Conus sp. shell at layers dated c. 21,000 BP. (Balme and Morse 2006, Morse 1993) ca. 30,000 Riwi rockshelter, Kimberley of W.A. Ten modified Sarcophilus harrisii shell beads showing signs of rubbing from string. (Balme 2000, Balme and Morse 2006) ca. 30,000 claim Carpenter’s Gap, WA. Dentalium sp. shell beads Not fully published yet. (O'Connor 1995, O'Connor 1999) 12-19,000 Devil’s Lair, W.A. 1) Three pierced macropod fibulae, rounded and hollowed, showing evidence of being strung; and 2) a possible pierced marl stone pendant (Bednarik 1998, Dortch 1979, Dortch 1980, Dortch 1984) 12-15,000 maybe Kow, Swamp, Victoria Headband made with kangaroo teeth with resin on the teeth (Flood 1995: 61, Thorne and Macumber 1971) ca. 7,000 Cooma, New South Wales Grave goods in a burial include and object make with pierced kangaroo and wallaby teeth (Feary 1996a) 6,600-7,000 Lake Nitchie, New South Wales Pierced Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) canine teeth were recovered with a male burial. This animal extinct on the mainland from late Holocene. (Macintosh, Smith, and Bailey 1970: 85-100) ca. 7,000 possibly Walpollo Island, Victoria Pierced Tasmanian Devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) canine teeth were recovered with a male burial (Pardoe 1995: 705) 7-4,000 Roonka 1) Two segments of perforated native cat mandibles; and 2) An oyster disc with two drilled holes. (Pretty 1974) ca. 4,000 Roonka 1) Headband of notched wallaby teeth cemented to head and another across the arm; 2) Bird skull pendant; and 3) Necklace of reptile vertebrae (Pretty 1974) ca. 4,500 Graman, New England, New South Wales 2 Bored or drilled stone pendants have been recovered from upper levels of Graman (McBryde 1977: 320) (McBryde 1968, 1974: 320-322, 375) 407 Summary of archaeological sites with beads in Australia Appendix 2 408 nd Sister’s Creek Tasmania Perforated stone possible pendant (Jones 1965: 195) < 2,000 West Point, Tasmania 32 pierced shells in a cremation pit - no species (Jones 1966b: 8) ca. 1,000- 2,000 Bundeena rockshelter Port Hacking, South of Sydney, NSW Possible ornaments 1) Four modified black periwinkle shells behind the shelter excavated by (Harper 1899) with child burial. Square cut marks. 2) Six modified black periwinkle shells (Nerita atramentosa) with a burial an adult and four children. Square cut marks (Irish 2007) (Harper 1899, Irish 2007) No date, Bondaian Graman Perforated mussel shell at Graman only drilled (McBryde 1974: 195) (McCarthy 1964) Level 1 post 16th century Seelands rockshelter Perforated nacreous rectangular fragment of turban shell - sawn (McBryde 1974: 194-195, 320-322) n.d. upper layer Nawamoyn rockshelter, Northern Territory 1) pierced upper incisor of a kangaroo: and 2) three pierced shells (Schrire 1982: 126-129) n.d. Kippa-ring Rail siding, and Samford, South-east Queensland Necklace/headband made of macropod teeth with resin collected in an archaeological survey (GHD_Pty_Ltd 2003, Hill 1980) nd Cape Range Peninsular Three baler shell pendants with red ochre on shells (Przywolnik 2003) n.d. Reef Beach, near Sydney, New South Wales Pierced oyster shell collected by Eugene Stockton and held by the Macleay Museum, Sydney In (Irish 2007: 48) n.d. Parramatta, Sydney, New South Wales Perforated tooth (shark or fish) (J._McDonald_Cultural_Heritag e_Management_Pty_Ltd 2005) nd Bunbury, WA Pierced abalone (Haliotis laevigatta) with a female burial (Akerman 2003, Akerman in prep) n.d. Mornington Island, Gulf of Carpentaria, Queensland Possible Dentalium sp. necklace in a burial Kate Sutcliffe in Schall 1988: 19 Ada Peggs Appendix 3 Ada Peggs comments about ornaments in her collection � Items 3 and 4: ‘Pearl-shell letters of introduction…it was worn round the neck by a string with a piece of shell placed just over the shoulder. P. 365 o ‘Jack has a piece of pearl-shell. It formed a letter of introduction for a man coming from Beagle Bay, passing through Lagrange Bay…It was worn round the neck by a string, with the piece of shell placed just over the shoulder’ p. 339 � Items 8 and 9: ‘Chastity-shells and hair girdle. The full war dress of the warriors. When shell is worn behind it denotes that the man wants a wife. P. 365 o This morning we were out for a walk before the sun was up, and passed a group of natives. In the midst of them was a man wearing what my husband told me was a girdle of chastity, in the form of a large pearl oyster shell decorated with a sort of key-pattern, the pattern scratched in with a pointed nail and wilgy rubbed in until the shell had the appearance of being inlaid’ p. 327 o ‘As to the chastity girdle, such small bits of information as I have gained I will put down here. As I said before, it takes the form of a pearl-shell – in many cases carved – and is worn by the man or woman as a signification that they have had no sexual intercourse. After marriage the wearing of it is discontinued by the woman. P. 334 o at a funeral – ‘I noticed that all those wearing chastity girdles had something – a handkerchief or a bit of rage – in fornt of them, and only when moving I noticed the glitter of the shells in the rays of the setting sun as the men walked’ o ‘Last week she (mary) brought us a slightly carved shell (chastity). Ply her as I would, I could only learn it belonged to her goo-goo, dead a long time (goo-goo is father) p 338 � Item 11: smaller chastity-shell with hair girdle see p. 353 � Item 13: pearl shell charms against sickness;13 and kangaroo teeth taken from the head of a child who was wilgyed. See pp 346, 347 o The pieces of pearl-shell with kangaroo teeth attached are used by the women as a charm against sickness, and are generally worn around the neck. P. 346 409 Ada Peggs Appendix 3 410 o We have become possessed of a couple of kangaroo teeth which came off a child’s hair, but are usually worn by women in wilgy (mourning) tied to their mud- plastered locks, falling in front of the eyes or even as low as the mouth. They are, I believe, worn as charms against evil spirits or ghosts’ p. 347 o ‘Ross, the King or Chief of the Roebuck natives…on our first introduction…he was wearing twisted by a long hair string round his throat, and then stuck into the side of his hair, a long narrow piece of mother-of-parl shell; a black end hair twist was fastened on by wilgy…the hair was taken from the beard entirely…Jack learned it was a charm against sickness. So long as it is worn the “debil-debil no come along…make ‘em plenty sick pfeller” in other words it answers the same purpose as vaccination. P 348 � Item 14: Shell necklace worn by the women when in want of a husband o ‘Kelly has given …a necklace, and this is what he told me the necklace signifies. When a woman wants to annex a man she wears the necklace round the throat; and when the marriage is consummated the necklace is put on one side and is only worn on special occasions… I asked Jack to get him to tell why sometimes they wore the necklace round the neck, sometimes round either one or both arms crossing bosos; he says it is only a fanciful decoration, and does not signify anything’ p. 346 Ornament types/States/drainage divisions Object/State/Drainage Div. NSW VIC TAS QLD NT WA Central & SA SE Coast NE Coast Eyre Gulf Timor Indian Western Plat Murray/ Darling Bulloo Tas large pearl pendants 000111 1 001111 1 000 other shell pendants 100111 1 111111 1 110 shell series 111111 0 110111 0 001 reed series 110111 1 111110 0 100 kangaroo teeth pendants 111111 1 101011 1 101 kangaroo teeth series 110011 1 101010 1 100 crocodile teeth 000010 0 000010 0 000 dolphin teeth 000010 0 000110 0 000 bird beaks, spoon bill pendants/series 000010 1 100010 0 000 human bone 011001 1 100000 1 101 turtle shell pendants 000001 0 000010 0 000 animal/bird bone series 110000 1 101000 0 110 animal/bird bone pendant 111110 1 110000 0 101 echidna spine series 010010 0 100010 0 000 eel cheek bone series 000100 0 010000 0 000 echidna spine pendants 000000 0 000000 0 000 series cray fish eyes 000100 0 010000 0 000 sweries hardened beeswax 000100 0 010000 0 000 eagles claw pendant 000100 1 001000 1 000 series vertebrae 000100 0 010000 0 000 pendant vertebrae 000001 0 000001 0 000 clay beads 000001 0 000001 0 000 seeds/beans series 100101 1 111000 1 000 seed pendant 000110 0 000011 1 000 wombat claws 011000 0 100000 0 001 moth cocoon series 000100 0 000000 0 000 Total 8 9 5 14 12 11 11 12 9 8 5 12 7 8 7 2 5 411 Ornament types/States/Drainage Divisions Appendix 4 Leila McAdam Example of data recording sheet Appendix 5 Collection History ID Photo Museum Reg_No Year Collector 1 Day 27 QVTAS 1983_E_0421 1934 Legge coll 2 Day 27 QVTAS 1983_E_0485 1934 Legge coll 3 Day 33 National 1985_0002_0435 1926 Horne G 4 Day 33 National 1985_0002_0436 1926 Horne G Spatial information Location Prov_level Long Lat State Drain_Geoscience Horton_drain Tindale_circum Caledon_Bay 1 136.50 -12.80 NT Gulf_of_Carpentaria Arnhem 2.00 Caledon_Bay 1 136.50 -12.80 NT Gulf_of_Carpentaria Arnhem 2.00 Mungeranie_Stn 1 138.66 -28.01 SA Lake_Eyre Eyre 1.00 Mungeranie_Stn 1 138.66 -28.01 SA Lake_Eyre Eyre 1.00 Categories Class Style Sub_style Pendant SHP06 SHP06_00 Pendant SHP01 SHP01_02 Pendant SHP01 SHP01_00 Pendant SHP01 SHP01_00 Morphology Material Material_Species Material_2nd Shape_segs Symm_shape_segs Shell pearl No Oval Yes Shell melo No Elliptical Yes Shell melo No Elongated_oval Yes Shell melo No Elongated_oval No Technology Tech_segs_other_than _attachment Method_attach _string Adhesive Tech_ coded No_perfs _seg Pos_perf Convex_surf _shell Convex_col Series_string_mat edge_ground_and_shaped 7.00 No 2.00 2.00 proximal Partially_cleaned Cream_and_pearly human_hair edge_ground_and_shaped 7.00 No 2.00 1.00 proximal Not_cleaned Cream_ivory human_hair edge_ground_and_shaped 7.00 No 2.00 1.00 proximal Not_cleaned Cream_ivory No edge_ground_and_shaped 7.00 No 2.00 1.00 proximal Not_cleaned Cream_ivory No Metric No_segs Tot_len_Series_segs_mm Av_len_segs_mm Av_wid_segs_mm Wid_div_by_Len Perc_segs_ten_pcof_stand 1.00 0.00 126.00 80.00 0.63 0.00 1.00 0.00 202.00 41.00 0.20 0.00 1.00 0.00 101.00 50.00 0.50 0.00 1.00 0.00 110.00 65.00 0.59 0.00 Decoration Code_dec Mountford_design 1.00 no 1.00 no 1.00 no 1.00 no 412 Codes for data sheet Circumcision Tindale Code Method of suspension Code Circum = Yes, Sub = Yes 1 No modification 0 Circum = Yes, Sub = No 2 Through a natural aperture (e.g. vertebrae, bugles) 1 Neither circum or sub 3 Pierced/drilled 2 Border 1 & 3 2.5 3. Cemented (use of resin, beeswax etc) 3 Border 2 & 1 3.5 4. String wound around object/segment 4 Notched 5 Pierced/drilled through cement (e.g. shells with piercing then cemented to hold fibre) 6 Technology Code Pierced and cemented (e.g. TP04) 7 None 0 Preform or broken object (no piercing evident but possibly an early stage of production) 8 Edge ground 1 Both method 1 and 2 9 Edge ground and shaped 2 Both method 1 and 7 10 Edge ground and shaped end seg smaller 3 Edge ground and shaped end segs diff shaped 4 Decoration Code Edge shaped end segs diff shaped 5 None 1 Edge shaped end segs smaller 6 Both extractive and additive. 2 Hole burnt strung depth and width 7 Extractive only 3 Hole burnt strung longitudinally 8 Additive only 4 Hole burnt strung width 9 Design constructed from material 5 Moulded to shape 10 Pendant edges ground and shaped 11 Segmented 12 Mountford designs Code Segmented, pendant edges ground and shaped 13 None No Shaped only 14 Zig-zag a. Strung atypically 15 Meandering & zig-zag & tracks b. Strung depth 16 Lattice or ladder c. Strung depth and width 17 Lines and stars d. Strung longitudinally 18 Figurative f. Strung longitudinally and width 19 Geometric & figurative g. Strung width 20 Surface ground 21 Surface ground end sements smaller 22 413 Codes for data sheet Appendix 6 414 Locations and drainage divisions Appendix 7 Horton (1996) map Appendix 8 415 Leila McAdam Provenancing Appendix 9 Latitude/Longitudes for broad areas (taken from Reader’s Digest Atlas of Australia (1994). 2nd edition. Published Reader’s Digest (Austalia) Pty Ltd, Sydney, Australia) Location on Listings Actual Location of Longitude/Latitude in Spreadsheet Explanation Alice Springs & Arrernte (Errente, Aranda) Alice Springs Alice Springs Arrernte country Archer to the Holyrod Rivers Mouth of the Archer River All Wik country, similar landscape Arnhem Land Taken at a point between Maningrida, Millingimbi and the Arafura Swamp Central Point for Arnhem Land Cape York East Central Point Reference for broad location Cape York West Central Point Reference for broad location Cooper Creek Placed at west of Innaminka Broad location Darbilla Creek South of the entrance near Millingimbi Creek flows from Arafura Swamp to Millingimbi Drysdale Mission Drysdale River Station Drysdale air strip at old mission site. Elkedra to Tanami Tanami Rockhole Tanami rockhole – notes on museum database indicated the collector’s main Aboriginal contact was at Tanami rockhole Endeavour River Taken at headwaters of Endeavour River Museum label from Endeavour River 100km inland from Cooktown. Museum card notes headwaters. Fitzroy Crossing & Fitzroy River Taken at Fitzroy Crossing Aboriginal Community 1 item from Fitzroy River (E- 10667) Fitzroy River Fitzroy Crossing Fitzroy River is very long, taken as a reference for broad analysis only Flinders & Stanley Islands Flinders Island Adjacent and same cultural group Georgina River West of Boulia Very long river. Only broad reference Gulf of Carpentaria Burketown Broad reference Iron Range & Pascoe River Taken on Pascoe River within Iron Range area Same cultural areas Kaitish/Warramunga Tennant/Barrow Creeks Kimberley Lat. Long taken at ‘Gibb River’ A central point for the Kimberley, a reference for broad analysis only Normanton & Karumba Normanton Same cultural areas and river Ord & Nigri Rivers At junction of the two rivers A specific point Port George IV & Kunmunya Mission Port George IV Adjacent Ranken River Taken at the foot of the Barkly Tablelands Flows to the Georgina, a reference for broad analysis only Tasmania & Furneaux Islands Centre of Island Uncertain of Tasmanian location 416 Spatial units and frequency of classes Appendix 10 Location State Drain Geoscience Region (Horton 1996) Class 1 Series Class 2 Pendants Total Admiralty Gulf WA Timor Sea Kimberley 04 4 Alice Springs Arrente NT Lake Eyre Desert 951 Alligator River NT Timor Sea North 24 23 47 Anthony Lagoon Police NT Western Plateau Desert 01 1 Archer, Kendall & Holyrod Rivers QLD Gulf of Carpenteria West Cape York 26 4 30 Arnhem Land unprovenanced NT Timor Sea Arnhem 50 22 72 Atherton QLD Northeast Coast Rainforest 5 Aurukun Mission QLD Gulf of Carpenteria West Cape York 71 8 Barcoo River QLD Lake Eyre Eyre 20 2 Barron River QLD Northeast Coast Rainforest Barrow Ck NT Western Plateau Desert 33 6 Barrow Tennant Cks NT Western Plateau Desert 0111 Bathurst Head QLD Northeast Coast East Cape York 20 2 Bathurst Is NT Timor Sea North 11 Beagle Bay WA Timor Sea Kimberley 02 2 Bloomfield River QLD Northeast Coast East Cape York 51 6 Blue Mud Bay NT Gulf of Carpenteria Arnhem 60 Boulia QLD Lake Eyre Eyre 31 4 Broome WA Timor Sea Kimberley 13 17 30 Bulman Roper NT Gulf of Carpenteria Arnhem 40 4 Burketown QLD Gulf of Carpenteria Gulf 90 9 Busselton WA Southwest Coast Southwest 10 1 Butchers Hill QLD Northeast Coast East Cape York 42 6 Cairns QLD Northeast Coast Rainforest 21 3 Caledon Bay NT Gulf of Carpenteria Arnhem 471 Cape Bedford QLD Northeast Coast East Cape York 30 3 Cape Grafton QLD Northeast Coast Rainforest 20 2 Cape Leveque WA Timor Sea Kimberley 01 1 Cape Melville QLD Northeast Coast East Cape York 20 2 Cape Stewart NT Timor Sea Arnhem 12 3 Cape York East QLD Northeast Coast East Cape York 10 1 Cape York West QLD Gulf of Carpenteria West Cape York 85 3 Carandotta QLD Lake Eyre Desert 21 Cardwell QLD Northeast Coast Rainforest 70 7 Castlereagh Bay NT Timor Sea Arnhem 11 2 Charlotte Waters NT Lake Eyre Desert 01 1 Chillagoe QLD Gulf of Carpenteria Gulf 10 Cloncurry QLD Gulf of Carpenteria Gulf 11 2 Coen River QLD Gulf of Carpenteria West Cape York 43 7 Cooktown QLD Northeast Coast East Cape York 45 9 Cooper Creek SA Lake Eyre Eyre 91423 Crocodile Island NT Timor Sea Arnhem 30 Cygnet Bay WA Timor Sea Kimberley 7512 Daly River NT Timor Sea Fitzmaurice 84 Daly Waters NT Gulf of Carpenteria Desert 12 3 Darbilla Creek NT Timor Sea Arnhem 8412 Darwin NT Timor Sea North 16 0 16 Derby WA Timor Sea Kimberley 02 2 Drysdale Mission WA Timor Sea Kimberley 04 4 Edward River QLD Gulf of Carpenteria West Cape York 02 2 Elcho Is NT Timor Sea Arnhem 53 8 Elkedra to Tanami NT Western Plateau Desert 41 5 Embley River QLD Gulf of Carpenteria West Cape York 54 9 Endeavour River QLD Northeast Coast East Cape York 10 1 Fitzroy Crossing WA Timor Sea Kimberley 37 0 Flinders Is QLD Northeast Coast East Cape York 90 9 Flora Vale WA Western Plateau Desert 01 1 Forrest River WA Timor Sea Kimberley 05 5 417 Spatial units and frequency of classes Appendix 10 Location State Drain Geoscience Region (Horton 1996) Class 1 Series Class 2 Pendants Total Frew River NT Western Plateau Desert 12 3 Furneaux Islands TAS Tasmania Tasmania 70 7 Gascoyne Dist WA Indian Ocean Div Northwest 21 3 Georgina River QLD Lake Eyre Eyre 10 1 Gilbert River QLD Gulf of Carpenteria Gulf Glenormiston QLD Lake Eyre Eyre 11 2 Godfrey Tank Canning Stock Route WA Western Plateau Desert 01 1 Goulburn Is NT Timor Sea Arnhem 10 1 Groote Eylandt NT Gulf of Carpenteria Gulf 20 2 Halls Creek WA Timor Sea Kimberley 01 1 Headingly QLD Lake Eyre Desert 10 Hermannsburg NT Lake Eyre Desert 31 4 Hopkins River VIC Southeast Coast Southeast 10 1 Hughenden QLD Gulf of Carpenteria Eyre Idamere QLD Lake Eyre Eyre 10 1 Innamincka SA Lake Eyre Eyre 20 2 Irvinebank QLD Gulf of Carpenteria Gulf 01 1 Jervois County NT Lake Eyre Desert 10 Kaparlgoo Mission NT Timor Sea North 22 4 Karumba QLD Gulf of Carpenteria Gulf 01 1 Katherine River NT Timor Sea Fitzmaurice 22 4 Keppel Island QLD Northeast Coast Northeast 10 1 Kimberley unprov WA Timor Sea Kimberley 710 7 King Sound WA Timor Sea Kimberley 12 23 35 Koonibba SA Western Plateau Spencer 02 2 Kunmunya Mission WA Timor Sea Kimberley 04 4 Lake Amadeus NT Western Plateau Desert 10 1 Lake Hindmarsh VIC Murray Darling Riverine Laura QLD Northeast Coast East Cape York 50 5 Laverton WA Western Plateau Desert 01 1 Liverpool River NT Timor Sea Arnhem Lombadina Mission WA Timor Sea Kimberley 21 36 57 Lower Tully River QLD Northeast Coast Rainforest 20 2 Macdonnell Ranges NT Lake Eyre Desert 60 6 Mackay QLD Northeast Coast Northeast 10 1 Mallee VIC Murray Darling Riverine Mapoon QLD Gulf of Carpenteria West Cape York 19 17 36 McArthur River NT Gulf of Carpenteria Gulf 6410 Melville Is NT Timor Sea North 25 7 Millingimbi NT Timor Sea Arnhem 12 8 20 Minnie Downs QLD Murray Darling Riverine 03 3 Mitchell River QLD Gulf of Carpenteria West Cape York 831 Moreton Electric Office QLD Gulf of Carpenteria West Cape York 02 2 Mornington Island QLD Gulf of Carpenteria Gulf 10 1 Mt Burrell NT Lake Eyre Desert 20 2 Mungeranie Stn SA Lake Eyre Eyre 02 Murganella NT Timor Sea Arnhem 10 1 Musgrave Ranges SA Western Plateau Desert Newcastle Waters NT Western Plateau Desert 2810 Nilpena Stn SA Sth Aust Gulf Div Spencer 10 Normanton QLD Gulf of Carpenteria Gulf 15 6 21 Oenpelli NT Timor Sea Arnhem 01 1 Oodnadatta SA Lake Eyre Eyre 10 Ooldea SA Western Plateau Desert 04 4 Ord and Nigri Rivers WA Timor Sea Kimberley 30 3 Ord River WA Timor Sea Kimberley 21 Palmer River QLD Gulf of Carpenteria West Cape York 02 2 418 Spatial units and frequency of classes Appendix 10 Location State Drain Geoscience Region (Horton 1996) Class 1 Series Class 2 Pendants Total Pascoe River Iron R QLD Northeast Coast East Cape York 61 7 Pender Bay WA Timor Sea Kimberley 40 4 Pennefather River QLD Gulf of Carpenteria West Cape York 30 3 Penong SA Western Plateau Spencer 03 Pine Creek NT Timor Sea Fitzmaurice 10 1 Port Essington NT Timor Sea Arnhem 52 7 Port George IV WA Timor Sea Kimberley 05 5 Port Musgrave Wenlock Duci QLD Gulf of Carpenteria West Cape York 8210 Port Stewart QLD Northeast Coast East Cape York 30 3 Ranken River NT Lake Eyre Desert 02 2 Roebourne WA Indian Ocean Div Northwest 1111 Roper River NT Gulf of Carpenteria Gulf 14 1 15 Roxburgh Downs QLD Lake Eyre Eyre 01 1 Rum Jungle NT Timor Sea Fitzmaurice 10 St Lawrence QLD Northeast Coast Northeast 12 3 Staaten River QLD Gulf of Carpenteria Gulf 9132 Sunday Island WA Timor Sea Kimberley 17 8 Tasmania TAS Tasmania Tasmania 19 0 19 Tempe Downs NT Lake Eyre Desert 31 4 Tennant Creek NT Western Plateau Desert 17 8 Townsville QLD Northeast Coast Northeast 20 2 Trial Bay NT Gulf of Carpenteria Arnhem 10 1 Turn-off Lagoon QLD Gulf of Carpenteria Gulf 41 5 Urandangie QLD Lake Eyre Desert 04 4 Van Dieman Gulf NT Timor Sea North 01 1 Victoria River NT Timor Sea Fitzmaurice 40 4 Warburton Creek SA Lake Eyre Eyre 21 3 Warburton Ranges WA Western Plateau Desert 02 2 Warramulla Mt Stuart NT Western Plateau Desert 10 1 Warrnambool VIC Southeast Coast Southeast Weipa QLD Gulf of Carpenteria West Cape York 9615 Well 42 Canning Stock Route WA Western Plateau Desert 01 Whitsunday Is QLD Northeast Coast Northeast 40 4 Willeroo Stn NT Timor Sea Fitzmaurice 01 1 Wilson River QLD Lake Eyre Eyre 30 3 Windorah QLD Lake Eyre Eyre 05 5 Woolen River NT Timor Sea Arnhem 10 1 Wyndham WA Timor Sea Kimberley 45 9 X Leopold Ranges WA Timor Sea Kimberley 10 1 Yarra River VIC Southeast Coast Southeast Yeeda Station WA Timor Sea Kimberley 11 2 419 Frequency of shell species within Horton's (1996) divisions Regions (Horton 1996) Arnhem Desert East Cape York Eyre Fitz- mauric e Gulf Kimb- erley North North- east North- west Rain- forest River- ine South- east Spen- cer Tas- mania West Cape York Total No. of regions with species Pearly shell 8 15 6 0 3 15 132 80601050742731 Tusk shell 9 0002164201000002817 Baler shell 21 7 1 18 0 17 0203010004749 Nautilus sp. 0 02410900615000015617 Olive shell 0 0000200000000016182 Cone shell 0 010000002000009123 Maireener shells 0 0000000000000120121 Land snails 5 0000000000000005 1 Rice shell 0 0000000000000505 1 Sundial Shell 0 0000000000000134 2 Black crow shell 0 0000000000000202 1 Strombus campbelli 0 0100000000000012 2 Toothies shell 0 0000000000000202 1 Ark shell 0 0000000000000011 1 Cat's teeth shell 0 0000000000000101 1 Cerithiidae semivertagus 0 0000000000000101 1 Crayfish legs 0 0000000000010001 1 Penguin shell 0 0000000000000101 1 Top snails shell 0 0000000000000101 1 Total 43 22 33 19 5 44 196 12 6 13 52152612557na No. of species in regions 4 25225231512119919na 420 Appendix 11 Location Arca Black crows Cats' teeth Cerithiidae semivertagus Conus Crayfish legs Tusk Land snails Maireener Baler Nautilus Olive Pearl Penguin Rice Strombus campbelli Sundial Toothies Trochidae Total Admiralty Gulf 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Alice Springs Arrente 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 Alligator River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Anthony Lagoon Police Station 000 0 1 1 Archer Kendall Holyrod Rivers 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 2 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 Arnhem Land unprovenanced 0000008301700400000032 Aurukun Mission 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 Barcoo River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Barrow Ck 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Barrow & Tennant Cks 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Bathurst Is 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Beagle Bay 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Bloomfield River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Broome 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 0 0 0 0 0 17 0 0 0 0 0 0 30 Butchers Hill 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Cairns 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Caledon Bay 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 Cape Bedford 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Cape Grafton 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Cape Leveque 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Cape Stewart 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Cape York West 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Cardwell 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Chillagoe 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Cloncurry 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Coen River 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 Cooktown 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 Cooper Creek 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 Cygnet Bay 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 Daly River 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 Daly Waters 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Darbilla Creek 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Darwin 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Frequency of marine and other shell species and locations 421 Frequency of shell species locations Appendix 12 Location Arca Black crows Cats' teeth Cerithiidae semivertagus Conus Crayfish legs Tusk Land snails Maireener Baler Nautilus Olive Pearl Penguin Rice Strombus campbelli Sundial Toothies Trochidae Total Derby 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Drysdale Mission 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Edward River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Elkedra to Tanami 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Embley River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 Endeavour River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Flinders Is 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Flora Vale 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Forrest River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Frew River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Furneaux Islands 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 1 7 Gascoyne Dist 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Gilbert River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Godfrey Tank Canning Stock Route 000 Halls Creek 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Irvinebank 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Kaparlgoo Mission 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Karumba 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Katherine River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Keppel Island 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Kimberley unprov 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 King Sound 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 23 0 0 0 0 0 0 35 Koonibba 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Kunmunya Mission 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Laura 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Laverton 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Lombadina Mission 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 36 0 0 0 0 0 0 56 Mackay 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Mapoon 1 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 2 7 15 0 0 1 3 0 0 34 McArthur River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 Melville Is 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Millingimbi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Minnie Downs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Mitchell River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Moreton Electric Office 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Mungeranie Stn 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Newcastle Waters 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Normanton 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 8 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 422 Frequency of shell species locations Appendix 12 Location Arca Black crows Cats' teeth Cerithiidae semivertagus Conus Crayfish legs Tusk Land snails Maireener Baler Nautilus Olive Pearl Penguin Rice Strombus campbelli Sundial Toothies Trochidae Total Ooldea 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Palmer River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Pascoe River Iron R 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 Pender Bay 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Pennefather River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 Penong 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 Port Essington 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Port George IV 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Port Musgrave, Wenlock & Duci Rivers 000 18 9 Port Stewart 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Ranken River 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Roebourne 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 0 3 1 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 St Lawrence 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Staaten River 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 11 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 Sunday Island 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 Tasmania 0 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 1 3 0 1 0 0 19 Tempe Downs 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Turn-off Lagoon 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Victoria River 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Warburton Creek 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Warburton Ranges 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Warrnambool 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Weipa 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 Well 42 Canning Stock Route 000 0 1 1 Whitsunday Is 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 Windorah 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Wyndham 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 Yeeda Station 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Total 1 2 1 1 12 1 81 5 12 74 61 18 273 1 5 2 4 2 1 557 423 Frequency of shell species locations Appendix 12 Richness of sub-forms within spatial units Appendix 13 Within the Timor Sea division, Arnhem has the most sub-forms, followed by North then Kimberley and Fitzmaurice. However, the ratio to ornaments has Fitzmaurice with the most variation, followed by North, Arnhem and finally Kimberley. In the Arnhem division, twenty-two forms have thirty-three sub-forms made from seven different materials. Most variation is in Arnhem Land unprovenanced and Millingimbi. These ornaments included bugle Series, tusk shell and land snail Series, baler and small pearl shell Pendants, teeth Series and Pendants (macropod, crocodile, sawfish & human), vertebrae Series and emu claws Series. This is a wider range of forms and materials than the southern end of Timor Sea drainage division. To the west of Arnhem in North division, fewer ornaments were collected, fourteen forms have twenty-two sub-forms manufactured from four different materials. There are seven sub-forms of bugle Series, baler and small pearl shell Pendants, a carapace Pendant, three varieties of macropod Series, one crocodile Pendant and twenty macropod Pendant. To the south of North division, Fitzmaurice has the least ornaments (23 specimens) within Timor Sea division but there are twelve sub-forms made from three different materials. These include four bugle Series, tusk shell Series, large and small pearl shell Pendants, three forms of macropod Series, and two forms of macropod Pendants. Kimberley has eighteen sub-forms manufactured from five different materials. Within the Kimberley division, Lombardina Mission has the fewest styles for number of ornaments with 7 styles for 57 objects. Nearby, King Sound with 3 forms only for 35 ornaments. In the same area, Broome has 3 styles for 30 ornaments. Lombadina had 20 tusk shell Series, 20 large pearl shell Pendants, 16 small pearl shell Pendants, and one macropod Series. King Sound had 9 large pearl shell Pendants, 14 smaller pearl shell Pendants and 12 tusk shell Series. Broome had 16 large pearl shell Pendants, 1 smaller pearl shell Pendant and 13 tusk shell Series. In that area, the dominant ornament collected included SHP06, SHP02 and SH01 – all pearl and tusk shell, with one macropod ornament. The range of materials compared to numbers of objects decreases with distance away from Arnhem. 424 Richness of sub-forms within spatial units Appendix 13 Also, at the northern end of Timor Sea division, Arnhem has a greater range of teeth forms and SHP01 (baler) forms than Kimberley at the southern end of the drainage division. Kimberley has the SHP06 (large pearl) and Arnhem does not. They do share bugle, seed and baler shell series, SHP02 (smaller pearl shell) Pendants and some teeth forms. Arnhem and North share twelve sub-forms, Arnhem and Fitzmaurice share four and Arnhem and Kimberley share ten sub-forms. In reverse, Kimberley and Fitzmaurice share five sub-forms and Kimberley and North share eight. North has more in common with contiguous area Arnhem than Kimberley and Fitzmaurice more in common with adjacent Kimberley than Arnhem. In the Gulf area, Normanton (8 specimens) on the East side of the Gulf and Staaten River (9 specimens) to the north have the most sub-forms. These include three bugle Series, tusk, Nautilus, pearl and olive shell Series, three forms of baler shell Pendants, small pearl Pendants and a seed Series. Most of these ornaments were manufacture from shell or bugles, with a variety of shell species. On the opposite side of the Gulf, McArthur has shell and bugle ornaments and teeth. Mornington Island has teeth further to the east but McArthur River is the most easterly distribution along the coast for teeth. To the north, on the western side of the Gulf, Roper River has only teeth and bugle ornaments. The Gulf shows more variation when assigned to Horton’s divisions than within the larger drainage divisions. Horton’s division could be a better indicator of spatial patterning. In Cape York, West Cape has twenty-four sub-forms, followed by East Cape with twelve and Rainforest with six. Mapoon (10 specimens) and the Archer, Kendall and Holyrod Rivers (10 specimens) area have the highest variety of sub-forms. Most of the locations along the eastern coast of the Gulf have a diverse range of ornaments. The Archer, Kendall and Holyrod Rivers area have olive, pearl, Nautilus Series, small pearl shell Pendants, fish and snake vertebrae Series and three forms of bugle Series. Mapoon has a similar range of materials with different shell species. Weipa to the south has mainly shell and one seed ornament. In East Cape York, Cooktown has the most variation with four sub-forms – all shell. To the south in the Rainforest, the most variation was in Cardwell (3 sub-forms) with a small number of objects made from bugles, seeds and shells. The other locations had too small a sample to 425 Richness of sub-forms within spatial units Appendix 13 426 consider analysis of this type. Tasmania had the least variation in ornaments with one style for nineteen objects. In Lake Eyre, the greatest ratio of sub-forms to numbers was in Cooper Creek (23 objects & 5 sub-forms) and Alice Springs (14 objects & 5 sub-forms). These locations were important trade routes and trading centres. The dominant form in Alice Springs was Erythrina seed Series (9 specimens) with baler and pearl shell pendants (3 specimens) and macropod teeth pendants (2 specimens). At Cooper Creek, the majority of ornaments were baler shell pendants (10 specimens), bugle Series (8 specimens) and bone pendants (4 specimens) made in a similar form to the baler shell objects. The form appears to be more important than the material. No pearly shells were collected. Within the Western Plateau, Newcastle Waters has 6 sub-forms for 10 objects, and Tennant & Barrow Creek 11 sub-forms for 25 objects. The majority of these were teeth pendants, other ornaments included pendants of pearl shell and eagles’ claws and teeth and seed series. There is a great degree of variation within forms for smaller numbers and in comparison to neighbouring Kimberley area. One other location that contained variation was Roebourne on the coast of Western Australia with twelve ornaments and seven sub-forms. These ornaments are all shell. The remaining locations had samples too small to include in this analysis. APPENDIX 14 RESULTS: REED OR GRASS BUGLES ___________________________________________________________________________ 14.1 Introduction This section provides a description of the classification of the sample for objects made from grass or reed bugles. The same approach will be used as for Chapter 9 on shells, except there is only one class of bugles and the species will not be used as variable because of the difficulty with identification. 14.2 Frequency and distribution of Class 1 (series) bugle objects In this sample, the 211 beaded ornaments manufactured from bugles (grass or reed) are all Class 1 (series). The objects have been categorised into five forms - BUG01 to BUG05 (BUG = bugles). All of these forms consist of a series of segments that have been cut from grass stems or reeds. The segments were then threaded end to end onto strands of fibre. The forms are defined by the various ways the strands have been composed. I have used the term ‘belly’ from Roth to describe the way multiple strands fall together as one or two separate groups. Roth (1897 Ch. XII, Sect. 304, 1910b (15), Sect. 27) described grass necklaces as; …in its simplest form it consists of hundreds of grass-reed bugles threaded on a twine from twelve to sixteen feet long tied at its extremities; the bugles are cut into lengths of from about half to five-eighths of an inch and over, either by means of the sharp edge of a mussel-shell or a stone-knife. Such a necklace can be worn just as it is, as a coil wound round and round the neck, or else rolled up into a thick loop so as to make two bellies of it, the ends being attached to tying strings. In other cases the bugles may be strung on a number of shorter threads, fixed at their extremities to the tying strings, so as to form a single-belly ornament; or again, two such bellies may be looped together, perhaps the commonest form. The forms of grass bugle ornaments in my sample did not always agree with Roth’s observations. Therefore, I have nominated my own categories. Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. Variability in bugle objects is also evident in the length of series of segments, length and thickness of segments and in decoration. Decoration is displayed through incision, colouring segments and/or attaching objects such as bird’s heads. I have nominated sub-forms to objects that have additional material attached (e.g. feather, bird’s heads or animal tails). There is only one sub-form for each bugle form and all bugle forms have at least one example of that variation. Characteristics for forms and sub-forms are outlined in tables and images in the following sections. The number of bugle objects in locations is listed in Table 14.1. The distribution of sites is shown in Figure 14.1. Table 14.1. Frequency of bugle objects in locations Location Frequency Alligator River 21 Archer, Kendall and Holyrod Rivers 8 Arnhem Land unprovenanced 20 Atherton 5 Barcoo River 1 Barron River 2 Bathurst Head 2 Bloomfield River 4 Blue Mud Bay 6 Boulia 3 Bulman Roper 4 Burketown 9 Butchers Hill 2 Cairns 2 Cape Bedford 1 Cape Melville 2 Cape York West 8 Cardwell 4 Castlereagh Bay 1 Cloncurry 1 Cooper Creek 8 Daly River 4 Daly Waters 1 Darbilla Creek 7 Darwin 4 Elcho Is 4 Elkedra to Tanami 1 Fitzroy Crossing 3 Flinders Is 7 Georgina River 1 Glenormiston 1 (cont. next column) Location Frequency Goulburn Is. 1 Headingly 1 Hermannsburg 1 Hopkins River 1 Hughenden 1 Idamere 1 Innamincka 2 Kaparlgoo Mission 2 Katherine River 2 Kimberley unprov 2 Lake Hindmarsh 1 MacDonnell Ranges 1 Mapoon 1 McArthur River 3 Melville Is 1 Millingimbi 5 Normanton 2 Ord River 1 Port Essington 3 Port Musgrave, Wenlock & Duci 1 Roper River 11 St Lawrence 1 Staaten River 5 Townsville 2 Turn-off Lagoon 3 Warburton Creek 2 Warramulla Mt Stuart 1 Whitsunday Is 2 Wilson River 3 Woolen River 1 Grand Total 211 Bugle objects were recorded from sixty-one of the 155 sites recorded for the sample. Of the 211 bugle objects, Alligator Creek and Arnhem Land have the highest numbers of bugle 428 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. objects with almost 20% of the bugle sample. Then, Roper River followed by West Cape York, Archer, Kendall and Holyrod River district and Cooper Creek. The number of forms for each location has been tabled in Appendix 18. Figure 14.1. Distribution of bugle ornaments Most locations are concentrated around the Gulf and northern Northern Territory. Alligator River and Arnhem Land unprovenanced had the highest number of objects with almost 20% of bugles recorded. Several objects were recorded in locations not in that area, including Cooper Creek and Flinders Island off East Cape York. Sites with low numbers were scattered through Lake Eyre District. Isolated objects were recorded from Central Australia, western Queensland and Victoria. Distribution is summarised according to drainage divisions (Table 14.2) and within Horton’s divisions (Table 14.3). 429 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. Table 14.2. Frequency of Class 1 (series) bugle objects within drainage divisions Drainage divisions Total Gulf of Carpentaria 64 Lake Eyre 25 Murray Darling 1 Northeast Coast 36 Southeast Coast 1 Timor Sea 82 Western Plateau 2 Total 211 Table 14.3. Frequency of Class 1 (series) bugle objects within Horton’s (1996) divisions Horton’s divisions Total Arnhem 52 Desert 6 East Cape 18 Eyre 23 Fitzmaurice 6 Gulf 34 Kimberley 6 North 28 Northeast 5 Rainforest 13 Riverine 1 Southeast 1 West Cape 18 Total 211 The largest sample was collected from Timor Sea division (39%), followed by the Gulf (30%) then Northeast Coast (17%) and Lake Eyre (12%). Only two specimens were recorded from Western Plateau and one each from Murray/Darling and Southeast Coast. Distribution is not related to drainage divisions The objects are spread throughout all Horton’s spatial units within Timor Sea with the majority in Arnhem (52), then North (28) to the south and dwindling to smaller numbers in Fitzmaurice(6) and Kimberley (6). In Gulf drainage division, bugle series occur most frequently in Gulf (34) then both East (18) and West Cape (18) with smaller numbers in Rainforest (13). The main concentration of bugle objects is in Arnhem which then spreads out in diminishing numbers both towards Western Australia, Central Australia and Queensland. The objects are clustered around the coastal fringe, however, unlike shell series objects, bugle forms are spread through the inland of Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia and 430 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. Victoria. There are no bugle objects recorded from Tasmania or south of the Kimberley in Western Australia. There are several sites along, or close to, the watershed of Lake Eyre division with Western Plateau and Gulf divisions. In the following section, I will outline the characteristics and illustrate the forms of bugles within the sample. 14.2.1 Classification of BUG01 forms Objects categorised in the form BUG01.00 display the following characteristics: • segments of grass or reed threaded on one continuous strand of fibre. Figure 14.2 shows an example of a BUG01 form. This ornament could be wound around loosely to fall on the chest in loops or tightly around the neck. Figure 14.2. BUG01.00 form (A-69490, S.A. Museum. Photo: J. McAdam) There is only one variation to the form: � BUG01.01 manufactured with hard bamboo and feathers attached. 431 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. 14.2.1.1 Frequency and distribution of BUG01 forms Sixty-five BUG01 objects were recorded. The frequency of BUG01 forms is summarised within drainage divisions (Table 14.4) and Horton’s units (Table 14.5). Figure 14.3 shows the distribution of BUG01 forms. Table 14.4. Frequency of BUG01.00 forms within drainage divisions Drainage division BUG01.00 Gulf of Carpentaria 17 Lake Eyre 4 Murray Darling 1 Northeast Coast 34 Southeast Coast 1 Timor Sea 7 Total 64 Table 14.5. Frequency of BUG01.00 forms within Horton’s (1996) divisions Horton's (1996) divisions BUG01.00 Arnhem 4 East Cape York 17 Eyre 4 Fitzmaurice 1 Gulf 6 Kimberley 2 North 1 Northeast 4 Rainforest 13 Riverine 1 Southeast 1 West Cape York 10 Grand Total 64 The majority of BUG01 forms were collected from East Cape and Rainforest within Northeast Coast drainage division. Within Gulf drainage, West Cape has the highest frequency of BUG01 forms. The one BUG01.01 variation was collected from Mt. Stuart within Western Plateau, the only BUG01 example from that drainage basin. 432 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. Figure 14.3. Distribution of BUG01 forms The one variation to the form is located in the centre of Australia inside the Western Plateau drainage area. The object is manufactured from pieces of a hard material (maybe thin bamboo) with feathers attached. This object was the only one of this form found in Western Plateau drainage division. The frequency within locations is listed in Table 14.6. 433 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. Table 14.6. Frequency of BUG01.00 forms in locations Location Horton (1996) & drainage division Total Alligator River N(TS) 1 Archer, Kendall & Holyrod Rivers WC(G) 5 Arnhem Land unprovenanced A(TS) 3 Atherton R(NEC) Barcoo River E(LE) 1 Barron River R(NEC) 2 Bathurst Head EC(NEC) 2 Bloomfield River EC(NEC) 4 Blue Mud Bay EC(NEC) 1 Boulia E(LE) Burketown G(G) 3 Butchers Hill EC(NEC) 1 Cairns R(NEC) 2 Cape Bedford EC(NEC) 1 Cape Melville EC(NEC) 2 Cape York West EC(G) 3 Cardwell R(NEC) 4 Daly River F(TS) 1 Fitzroy Crossing K(TS) 2 Flinders Is EC(NEC) 7 Georgina River E(LE) 1 Glenormiston Hopkins River SE(SEC) 1 Lake Hindmarsh R(MD) 1 Mapoon WC(G) Normanton G(G)K(TS) Port Musgrave, Wenlock & Duci Rivers EC(G) 1 St Lawrence NE(NEC) 1 Staaten River G(G) 2 Townsville NE(NEC) Warramulla Mt Stuart D(WP) 1 Whitsunday Is NE(NEC) 2 Total na 64 The patterning of the BUG01 sample differs in some areas to that for the whole bugle population. Similarities occur in that, in both samples, most are concentrated over northern Australian coastal areas with a few clustered sites in Lake Eyre drainage area and Victoria. Differences include fewer locations with BUG01 forms recorded inland, less locations within Timor Sea drainage division and fewer locations along the west of the Gulf of Carpentaria. Another point is that almost all locations along the eastern coast with bugle ornaments contain BUG01 forms. 434 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. 14.2.2 Classification of BUG02 forms Twelve BUG02 objects were recorded including one variation. Objects categorised as BUG02 forms display the following characteristics: • segments threaded onto multiple loops of fibre or one single loop that has been tied into loops at one point; and • strands are intertwined, looped or over-bound together at one point. A tie string may be attached at one point. The loops form one ‘belly’ and may be worn around the neck falling to the chest or the ties may be tied around the neck and the whole necklace falling in a circlet. See Figure 14.4 for a typical BUG02 form. Figure 14.4. BUG02 form (QE-6274B, Queensland Museum) The one variation to the form (BUG02.01) had feathers attached. 14.2.2.1 Frequency and distribution of BUG02 forms The frequency of BUG02 forms is summarised in Table 14.7 for drainage divisions and Table 14.8 for Horton’s divisions. The distribution is plotted in Figure 14.5. 435 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. Table 14.7. Frequency of BUG02.00 forms within drainage divisions Drainage divisions BUG02_00 Gulf of Carpentaria 8 Lake Eyre 1 Northeast Coast 1 Timor Sea 1 Total 11 Table 14.8. Frequency of BUG02.00 forms within Horton’s (1996) divisions Horton’s divisions BUG02.00 Arnhem 1 Eyre 1 Fitzmaurice 1 Gulf 4 Northeast 1 West Cape York 3 Total 11 The one variation to the form was located in Arnhem within Timor Sea drainage division. The highest number of BUG02 forms was located in Gulf with four examples from Horton’s Gulf unit and three from West Cape. Figure 14.5. Distribution of BUG02 forms 436 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. Only one BUG02 form is located a great distance away from the coast in Lake Eyre drainage area. Most examples were collected around the Gulf area in Cape York. The sample of BUG02 forms is too small to compare with that of the whole population of bugle forms. 14.2.3 Classification of BUG03 forms One hundred and twenty-three BUG03 forms were recorded. This is the most frequently occurring form in the sample. Objects classified as BUG03 display the following characteristics: • segments threaded onto multiple loops of fibre; and • fibre is looped, overbound or knotted together at opposite ends from where tying strings may be attached. The variation to the form (BUG03.01) has other material/s attached. Figure 14.6 shows an image of a BUG03 form and Figure 14.7shows an example of the ornament with material added (a parrot’s head in this example). Figure 14.6. BUG03 form with human hair ties (A-22212, South Australian Museum) 437 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. Figure 14.7. BUG03.01 form with fibre string and parrot’s head (A-3511, South Australian Museum) 14.2.3.1 Frequency and distribution of BUG03 forms Frequency of BUG03 forms is summarised within drainage divisions Table 14.9 and Horton’s divisions (Table 14.10). The distribution is plotted in Figure 14.8. Locations are tabled in Appendix 18. Table 14.9. Frequency of BUG03 forms within drainage divisions Drainage divisions BUG03.00 BUG03.01 Gulf of Carpentaria 37 2 Lake Eyre 18 0 Northeast Coast 1 0 Timor Sea 54 10 Western Plateau 1 0 Total 111 12 Table 14.10. Frequency of BUG03 forms within Horton’s (1996) divisions Horton’s divisions BUG03.00 BUG03.01 Arnhem 38 8 Desert 5 0 East Cape York 1 0 Eyre 16 Fitzmaurice 3 Gulf 22 2 Kimberley 4 0 North 17 West Cape York 5 0 Total 111 12 438 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. Figure 14.8. Distribution of BUG03 forms Almost half of the BUG03 forms occur in Timor Sea, with the highest number in Arnhem (46) followed by North (19) and smaller numbers in Fitzmaurice (3) and Kimberley (5). Gulf has the next highest number (39). Of those, eighteen were collected from the west coastline of the Gulf (Blue Mud Bay, and Bulman and Roper Rivers), thirteen from the southern end of the Gulf (McArthur River, Turn-off Lagoon, Burketown and Normanton) and only five from West Cape. BUG03 forms appear to have diminished in numbers per location with increased distance away from Arnhem Land. With the exception of two examples from the Gulf, all of the BUG03.01 forms occur within Arnhem and North in Timor Sea drainage division. The BUG03.01 forms from Gulf are on the western side of the Gulf. Lake Eyre drainage division has eighteen examples of BUG03 in nine scattered locations. The distribution for BUG03 forms closely resembles that of the whole sample of bugles with the exception of Victoria and their absence along the eastern coast. 439 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. 14.2.4 Classification of BUG04 and BUG05 forms I have grouped BUG04 and BUG05 samples together because both have small samples and can easily be interpreted on the one map. 14.2.4.1 BUG04 forms Six BUG04 objects were recorded. Objectss nominated to BUG04 display the following characteristics: • segments threaded onto multiple separate strands; and • complex stitching at the end of strands to hold in place. Figure 14.9 presents an example of the BUG04 form. Figure 14.9. BUG04 form (A-3489, South Australian Museum) 14.2.4.2 BUG05 forms Five BUG05 objects were recorded, including one variation. Objects nominated to BUG05 display the following characteristics: • segments are threaded onto multiple separate strands; and • rows of stitches have been sewn across strands causing the strands to lie flat. Figure 14.10 illustrates an example of BUG05.01 with added material. 440 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. Figure 14.10. BUG05.01 with attached feathers set in gum (A-3510, South Australian Museum) 14.2.4.3 Frequency and distribution of BUG04 and BUG05 forms The frequency of objects within drainage divisions for forms BUG04 and BUG05 is listed in Table 14.11 and the distribution plotted in Figure 14.11. Distribution of BUG04 and BUG05 forms is shown in Figure 14.11. I have placed coloured arrows to give a clearer indication to the reader of where objects were located rather than place circles on top of each other in such a small area. Table 14.11. Frequency of BUG04 and BUG05 forms within drainage divisions Drainage divisions BUG04.00 BUG04.01 BUG05.00 BUG05.01 Lake Eyre 2 0 0 0 Timor Sea 3 1 2 3 Total 5 1 2 3 441 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. Figure 14.11. Distribution of BUG04 and BUG05 forms All BUG04 and BUG05 examples are confined to Timor Sea with the exception of two BUG04.00 forms from Cooper Creek in Eyre drainage division. Those BUG04 specimens from Timor Sea drainage division were from Horton’s North and Fitzmaurice. All of the BUG05.00 specimens were collected at Alligator River in Horton’s North spatial unit. These forms represent a small portion of the bugle sample. The BUG05.01 sample with material attached is in one location. 14.3 Summary of bugle forms A summary of the frequency of each bugle form is given in Table 14.12. 442 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. Table 14.12. Frequency of bugle forms in sample Sub style Total BUG01 00 64 BUG01 01 1 BUG02 00 11 BUG02 01 1 BUG03 00 110 BUG03 01 13 BUG04 00 5 BUG04 01 1 BUG05 00 2 BUG05 01 3 Total 211 The most frequently occurring form was BUG03 followed by BUG01. Fewer numbers of other forms were identified. The distribution of all forms is shown in Figure 14.12. Figure 14.12. Distribution of all bugle forms There is an overlap of all forms in the northern region of Northern Territory and around the Gulf. One obvious pattern is that BUG01 forms are spread down the north and central Queensland coast (east of the Great Dividing Range) where there is a paucity of other forms. The same ornament form is less prominant around the west side of the Gulf of Carpentaria. 443 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. This is the simplest form of bugle beaded ornament and the same technique for manufacture has been used in Victoria in the southern end of the continent. BUG02 sites are scattered across the northern area and Cooper Creek. BUG03, which is the most common form, is mainly located west of the Great Dividing Range and north of the Flinders Ranges in South Australia. This form is more widespread throughout central Australia than any other form. BUG04 is localised around north-eastern Northern Territory and in Cooper Creek. BUG05 was collected at Alligator Creek only. There were no bugle objects collected from Tasmania. The frequency of bugle forms within drainage areas is summarised in Table 14.13 and Horton’s areas in Table 14.14. Table 14.13. Bugle forms within drainage divisions Drainage areas BUG01 BUG02 BUG03 BUG04 BUG05 Total Gulf of Carpentaria 17 8 39 0 0 64 Lake Eyre 4 1 18 2 0 25 Murray Darling 1 0 0 0 0 1 Northeast Coast 34 1 1 0 0 36 Southeast Coast 1 0 0 0 0 1 Timor Sea 7 2 64 4 5 82 Western Plateau 1 0 1 0 0 2 Total 65 12 123 6 5 211 Table 14.14. Bugle forms within Horton’s (1996) divisions Horton's divisions BUG01 BUG02 BUG03 BUG04 BUG05 Grand Total Arnhem 4 2 46 0 0 52 Desert 1 0 5 0 0 6 East Cape York 17 0 1 0 0 18 Eyre 4 1 16 2 23 Fitzmaurice 1 1 3 1 0 6 Gulf 6 4 24 0 34 Kimberley 2 0 4 0 0 6 North 1 19 3 5 28 Northeast 4 1 0 0 0 5 Rainforest 13 0 13 Riverine 1 0 0 0 0 1 Southeast 1 0 0 0 0 1 West Cape York 10 3 5 0 0 18 Grand Total 65 12 123 6 5 211 The majority of bugle objects were collected within the Timor Sea division, followed by the Gulf then Northeast Coast and Lake Eyre. 444 Leila E. McAdam Appendix 14. 445 Within Timor Sea division, the majority of bugle objects were collected from Arnhem (52) with North (28), Fitzmaurice (6) and Kimberley (6). Within the Gulf division, Gulf had more examples (34) than West Cape (18). The numbers within Horton’s units appear to lessen with increased distance from Arnhem. There is patterning within the bugle forms, however, the patterning is not as confined as within the shells. For example, in Class 2 (pendant) shell ornaments, SHP06 does not cross the watershed into Lake Eyre and SHP01 does not cross into the Western Plateau. The bugle ornaments may not have been as important as shells. Decoration of bugle forms will be discussed in Chapter 10.