Information and communication technologies (ICT) are powerful tools for transforming education, especially in developing countries where technology is just beginning to be used. Numerous studies have explored the factors enabling and inhibiting ICT acceptance and use through application of well-established technology acceptance models in developed countries. However, these factors have not been studied in Bhutan, and further, the studies in developed and other developing countries may have limited application in Bhutan owing to its unique cultural context. Therefore, the current research applies the adapted Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) and Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory in a unique Himalayan Buddhist cultural context and investigates the factors that enable and inhibit teacher educators’ ICT acceptance and use in teaching at Bhutanese education colleges.
This research used a convergent mixed method where quantitative data was collected by survey and qualitative data was collected by semi-structured interview. The survey and interview items were constructed based on six constructs of the adapted UTAUT model: Performance expectancy, effort expectancy, facilitating conditions, social influence, attitude and ICT usage. The survey data were analysed by using descriptive analysis such as mean, standard deviation, percentage, Pearson Correlations, Cohen’s d value, and Eta squared in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Prior analysis, validity, and reliability of the survey were calculated and checked. The interview data was analysed in the data analysing software NVivo 12 using thematic analysis.
This research revealed that all UTAUT constructs (performance expectancy, effort expectancy, facilitating conditions, and social influence) played a significant role in influencing teacher educators’ acceptance and use of technology. This research also found that teacher educators generally held positive attitudes toward ICT acceptance and use in teaching and their attitudes were influenced by perceived usefulness, facilitating conditions and Information and Communication Technology use. However, variables like age, gender, teaching experience and subject of specialisation did not influence attitude. The findings of this research further revealed that Bhutanese cultural factors such as gyelkhap lu tha dam tshig (commitment, integrity and dedication to nation),tenchingdrelwa (the interdependent collective nature of Bhutanese culture), and zhenphen (the Buddhist value of selfless intent and action to help others) inspired teacher educators to accept and use technology in teaching. Nevertheless, the participants perceived that the existence of hierarchical power, mandatory ICT use, and prescribed curriculum creates a rigid system that impedes teacher educators from using technology.
Overall, the factors enabling Bhutanese teacher educators’ ICT acceptance and use in teaching found in this research are performance expectancy, social influence, positive attitude, ICT usage, culture, imperatives of a technology-driven era, and transformative events (such as COVID-19). The factors that inhibit Bhutanese teacher educators’ ICT acceptance are effort expectancy, facilitating conditions, time, and system rigidity due to prescribed curriculum, power distance and mandatory ICT use. By integrating these factors into the existing UTAUT model, the study proposed a culturally relevant theoretical framework of teacher educators’ ICT acceptance and use in Bhutan and similar cultural contexts to maximise ICT uptake in teaching.